Living With Wolves: What Shepherds Reveal About Coexistence

The recent reintroduction of wolves to Germany has sparked debate among the public and policymakers. Lower Saxony is home to the most controversial of these discussions as it is home to the majority of Germany’s wolves and a large portion of the country’s farm animals. A study published this year provided insight into the daily struggles 12 professional, part-time, and hobby shepherds face because of their proximity to wolves.

Wolves have historically been hunted to extinction across large parts of Europe. Starting in the late 1900s, European countries began enacting laws to protect these animals. In Germany, the first signs of a re-colonizing population of wolves was in the year 2000. As of today, German authorities have officially recognized 276 wolf territories across the country. The return of these animals in the wild has generated much positive sentiment among the conservation community. However, this has also created negative sentiment among the pastoral community, as wild canids have shown a propensity to prey on livestock, particularly sheep. Sheep are less defensive and often easier prey than other livestock. German authorities eased wolf protection regulations in 2025, permitting legally sanctioned wolf removals and hunting.

The ease of protection regulations allowed researchers to study the sentiment of affected pastoralists. The studied pastoralists’ sentiment was less related to ideology and more related to personal experience. The pastoralists reported feelings of fear and dread, particularly professional pastoralists who experienced repeated large-scale predation events (which they referred to as “massacres”). Other pastoralists reported a duty to support biodiversity. In particular, the researchers found it noteworthy that some of the pastoralists, who reported feeling moral obligation to allow wolves to share their land, also reported that they found it odd to suggest that wolves do not have the right to be part of that ecological system.

For us, life has changed completely. Even before [the return of the wolf], we actually had no free time and were working more than enough. And now, with the wolves, this massive number of wolves, we're running ourselves ragged, trying to catch up, without seeing any light at the end of the tunnel. It's become frightening. (Shepherd 6)

He kills more than he eats. […] When you see how many sheep he kills and doesn't eat, you start to think differently. (Shepherd 5)

Despite these differences, most shepherds believed coexistence could be possible if wolf pressure were reduced through targeted regulation. As one put it, coexistence might work if the wolf population were properly regulated and problematic individuals removed. This perspective reflects the broader tension between conservation goals and rural livelihoods, especially after wolves were added to Germany’s Federal Hunting Act in 2026, a move that conservation organizations argue may be counterproductive.

Though beliefs concerning potential coexistence varied, most sheep farmers acknowledged some degree of compromise. One belief was that if regulations were adjusted to allow for the removal of problematic wolves, some level of coexistence was conceivable. Of course, this raised questions regarding the government’s commitment to protecting wolves and other wildlife versus the protection of the rural population’s way of life. Following the modification of German law to allow for the legal protection of wolves (2026), there is real concern among many rural residents that the legislation will negatively impact their livelihoods.

The study found that, among the protection measures available, electric fences were the best available alternative. The 12 respondents in the study reported that, during the field season, fences stopped predatory attacks and protected the flock. Fences, however, also had a major limitation. Because wolves are able to jump, attacks can occur if the fence is not properly maintained.

The second best available measure, according to respondents, was the use of livestock guarding dogs. Some respondents expressed concern that habituated wolves would attack the dogs. There was a general consensus that guarding dogs were among the best available measures.

Other strategies had limited success. Mechanical fences restricted movements and were prohibitively expensive for mobile sheep farming. Stables and night sanctuaries safeguarded sheep from predation, but raised health and economic concerns. Habituation to fladry was rapid. Donkeys and llama were of no use, with sheep farmers believing that wolves were capable of preying upon larger stock.

Technological solutions to protecting sheep were examined and found that personal sheep monitoring, using GPS and GPRS collars, was emotionally draining due to inaccuracies and false alarms. A GPS collar on one sheep reportedly showed the animal in another country and Shepherds were uncertain if they could reach the animal in time when the collar provided a location alert. Continuous sounds and lights (used to deter wolves) were of little use to sheep protection, as wolves quickly become habituated and the equipment, in the process, disturbed other wildlife and farm stock.

All interviewees stated that the coexistence of people and large carnivores can not only be ensured by means but also by political structures. These political structures are needed to cover the costs, for example, for guarding dogs and for the repair and maintenance of electric fences. In addition, there is a need for rapid and clear procedures to issue licenses to remove problem wolves.

In other federal states, the maintenance costs for the dogs are already covered. For these livestock guarding dogs, there needs to be a fixed annual amount paid. Otherwise, keeping them in the long run isn't feasible. (Shepherd 6)

The shepherds of Lower Saxony are navigating a landscape where ecological recovery intersects with economic pressure, emotional fatigue, and social expectations. Their experiences show that coexistence is not the absence of conflict but the ability to manage risks at socially tolerable levels.

Wolves have returned, and their presence is reshaping rural life. Whether coexistence succeeds will depend on how well policy, support systems, and protection measures align with the realities of those who care for livestock every day.

Kortmann, E., von Ruschkowski, E., Schoon, M., & Loos, J. (2026). Shepherds' perception of the effectiveness and feasibility of herd protection measures against wolf predation in Lower Saxony, Germany. Conservation Science and Practice, 8(9), e70374. https://doi.org/10.1111/csp2.70374